Indus Water Treaty of 1960

INDUS WATER TREATY OF 1960 by William H. Thompson [February 2013] The Indus Water Treaty (IWT) of 1960 is an example of a mutually beneficial conflict or, as Kriesberg and Dayton would define it, a constructive conflict. Born of the dissolution of the British Crown Colony of India in 1947, the treaty recognized the mutual needs of India and Pakistan, and the necessity of ensuring continuing access to the waters of the Indus River System for both nations.Although the treaty has survived â€Å"two and a half wars and frequent military mobilizations† as well as a nuclear arms race, current moves by both Pakistan and India regarding dispute mediation threaten to dissolve the treaty. Differences in interpretation, Pakistani mismanagement of its own water resources and the ongoing question of the status of Kashmir each threaten the continued observance of the treaty. Neither nation can afford the loss of this treaty. For each nation this treaty has been a source of ongoing diplomati c relations, requiring annual meetings and open verification of water projects within the covered regions.It has been used to address non-water issues and to placate each other in times of crisis. It has also ensured that water continues to flow between the two, in spite of the strategic advantage that India could gain by stopping that flow. This paper will outline some of the dangers affecting the future of the IWT. It will address the interpretation of treaty clauses by neutral parties and how that has resulted in diplomatic escalation by Pakistan. It will address the very real concern for Pakistan that India has the superior strategic position with regard to control of the Indus System.It will also highlight the inadequate water infrastructure within Pakistan and the affect that this has on the ability of India to complete its own water projects. The paper will describe certain indicators of the health of the treaty. Finally, it will outline two scenarios for the future of the IW T and the likely outcome of each. The goal of addressing these issues is to stress the importance of this treaty over national concerns for control of water and how the mutual control of the Indus system is the best solution for both nations.Before exploring the continued existence of the Water Treaty of 1960, and the potentially far reaching effects of its nullification, it is necessary to provide a brief history of the Indo-Pakistani conflict, especially as it relates to the Kashmiri region and control of the Indus River System. When the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act of 1947, its primary concern was achieving a speedy settlement of the partition rather than the stability of the resulting entities.Sir Cyril Radcliffe, the English barrister charged with partitioning the Indian colony into two separate entities, arrived in New Delhi on 8 July 1947 to learn that the date of independence for both newly formed nations of India and Pakistan had already been set fo r 15 August of that same year. The rules for the partition of India and Pakistan, established in negotiations between the British representative Lord Mountbatten, the Indian National Congress representative Jawaharlal Nehru and the Muslim League representative Muhammed Ali Jennah, focused the division along religious lines.In certain provinces with no clear religious majority, most notably those bordering Punjab and Bengal, the citizens of the province were to be given the opportunity to vote over which country to join. Independent princedoms, such as Kashmir, were given the option of joining with either state, but were encouraged to hold a plebiscite if the desires of the people were in doubt. The resulting boundaries would have three far-reaching results.First, the sudden change in citizenship (from nominally British to Pakistani or Indian respectively) resulted in bloodshed and mass-exodus as Muslims moved from India to Pakistan and Hindus moved to India from Pakistan, as well as an almost instantaneous nationalism within both nations. Second, when establishing borders between the states it did so with little regard to natural boundaries, such as rivers, and little thought to allocation of the infrastructure and resources now shared by the two states.What had been created by one central government, such as irrigation systems, canals, and dams, was now controlled by two with no standing agreement over how they should be shared. Finally, in giving the rulers of independent princedoms the right to choose which country to join, the prince was expected to abide by the wishes of his subjects; in the case of Kashmir, the prince made his own choice. Common sense should have dictated that the province becomes the northernmost province of Pakistan: Its people were predominantly Muslim and it controlled the flow of the Indus River into Pakistan.Kashmir as a province of Pakistan was likely the vision of the British, Muslim and Hindu negotiators of the partition. Unfort unately, the status of the various princedoms, including Kashmir, was left to each ruling prince. Although not alone in originating the Indo-Pakistani conflicts, the decision of Hari Singh, the Maharaja of Kashmir, to join India rather than Pakistan has played a vital role in exacerbating them. One oddity of the partition of the former British colony is the Standstill Agreement.This agreement stated that the flow of the Indus between East and West Punjab (India and Pakistan) would remain at the same level from the date of partition until 31 March, 1948 and that Pakistan would pay a set fee for the water that flowed. As Pakistani forces crossed the border of Jammu and Kashmir to protect Muslims and Indian forces were airlifted into Kashmir to defend India’s territorial boundaries, the dams, canals and barrages along Indus tributaries continued to operate and adjust flows to ensure that water reached the fields of Pakistan.And, as these things occurred, Pakistan continued to pa y its water fee to India. However, on 01 April, 1948, with the agreement ending and no new agreement in place, the flow of water stopped. Although India and Pakistan would agree to a resumption of water deliveries, two precedents had been set: Pakistan recognized that it was in an untenable position and India had demonstrated that it would abide by existing agreements but, in the absence of agreement would act in its own best interests.In 1952, the World Bank offered to mediate the dispute over Indus Waters. The resulting treaty, based on the water usage needs of each, water availability in the Indus System and mutual development of the watershed granted India the use of several rivers flowing through Kashmir for power generation, but stipulated that the usage must allow free flow of the waters into Pakistan. Each nation must announce water development plans and allow for the inspection of these projects by engineers from the other nation.It established a Permanent Indus Commission, made up of engineers from each nation, which would meet annually to discuss development issues and treaty implementation and established steps for dispute arbitration. Modern interpretation of the provisions of a treaty established in 1960 have strained the agreement and resulted in an escalation of Pakistan’s arbitration demands. Until 2005 all disputes over water projects had been resolved through the annual meetings of the Permanent Indus Commission. This changed with Indian plans to build the Baglihar Dam, a hydroelectric project, across the Chenab River.Although planning began in 1992, Pakistani engineers first objected to the project in 1999 on the grounds that it blocked the free flow of water within the Indus System in violation of the IWT. India contended that, in spite of the fact that it did not comply with the original treaty, the design of the dam was sound and that it would not only allow for the flow of water but would ensure that water supplies were available throughout the year. Pakistan referred the dispute to the World Bank for neutral arbitration under terms of the IWT.Although the neutral arbiter agreed in principal that the Indian project violated some aspects of the treaty, the violations were determined to be based on â€Å"sound and economic design and satisfactory construction and operation† and the project was allowed to continue. While Pakistan agreed to the decision of the World Bank, its next dispute, over the Kishanganga Hydroelectric Dam, was taken directly to the International Court of Arbitration. Although this level of arbitration is specified in the IWT, it is the first time that any dispute under the treaty has been taken to this level.The fact that Pakistan skipped neutral arbitration in favor of the International Court may be a signal that it mistrusts the neutrality of the World Bank. Although the Court has not yet ruled on the project, a ruling in favor of India may convince Pakistan that the treaty is no longer in its best interests. The escalating arbitration demands of Pakistan reflect some concern over individual water projects, which was reflected in its arbitration request concerning the Baglihar Dam project, and more concern for the strategic implications of the Indian system as a whole.As most agree, no single Indian project could shut down water supplies to Pakistan. However, there is general agreement that India holds the superior position regarding control and usage of the Indus River. And there is agreement that the sheer number of dams along the northern Indus System could indeed have adverse effects on the water available to Pakistan. While Indian water needs are fulfilled by three rivers, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra as well as the Indus,Pakistan is served almost exclusively by the Indus, over which India maintains control. Although India contends that it has never diverted water from Pakistan, the water stoppage of 1948, when East Punjab halted water flow into West Pu njab, is ever present in Pakistani strategic thought. India has the greater GDP, and therefore a greater ability to withstand delays to its water projects, and a larger military, so it cannot be easily intimidated into acceding to Pakistani demands.As Pakistani negotiators have stated, the Indian negotiating strategy is â€Å"one of delay, of foot dragging, of ‘tiring you out’;†¦of â€Å"creating facts†, proceeding with construction plans, even when aware that the plans might well violate the treaty, so that Pakistan, confronted eventually with fait accompli, would have no choice but to cut its losses and accept an unfavorable compromise settlement; and †¦ insisting on a bilateral framework of talks, without intending ever to settle on any but India’s terms. Although Pakistani negotiators may believe that India can drag negotiations on, the reality is that each referral to arbitration has put a great burden on India in time to completion. In the case of the Baglihar Dam, India announced its plans in 1992, began construction in 1999, the project was taken to arbitration in 2005 and the entire project was not completed until 2010. This case is similar to other projects which have taken 10+years from commencement, through negotiation, to completion.Some, especially within Pakistan, have suggested that the treaty is no longer useful, that it is too strategically disadvantageous to Pakistan and that the only solution to the issue is to take control of Kashmir and the northern Indus System. Others have expressed concerns that India’s hydroelectric projects may force Pakistan to abrogate the treaty and spark a war over Kashmir and control of the Indus.Whether concerns over war between the two nuclear nations are meant as a warning or a threat they have come often enough since the dispute over the Baglihar Dam that they must be seen as a real concern. With multiple Indian hydroelectric projects in the planning stage (althou gh the actual number is in dispute), the opportunities for â€Å"hawks† within Pakistan to demand war will continue to place pressure on politicians and the military to accept nothing less than a halt to all projects.The disputes over Indian projects have allowed Pakistan to divert attention away from its own weaknesses with regard to water availability. Although Pakistan often contends that Indian projects on the northern Indus have resulted in a loss of useable water within Pakistan, it is â€Å"a case of wastage and unequal distribution by internal forces† that has resulted in less water availability within Pakistan. This loss in water availability is due to aging transfer systems (pipes, canals), increasing silt levels within dams, corruption and inefficiency and low expenditure on water sector development.Ninety percent of Pakistan’s irrigable water is supplied by the Indus; an aging system of canals, barrages and hydroelectric dams within Pakistan has resu lted in waste within its own water management systems. This is largely a result of heavy sediment composition of the Indus. Water storage systems and canals have filled with sediment over time, resulting in less water availability and susceptibility to flooding, especially during heavy monsoonal rains. The IWT has been used as a means to, if not settle other non-water related disputes, to at least achieve a hearing of them, or to ease the tensions between the nations.Most recently, in 2009, the Pakistan Commissioner of Indus Waters had been asked about developments on the Nimoo-Bazgo Hydro Project and whether his office had inquired about inspecting the development. His response was that â€Å"We would like to go there when the tension between India and Pakistan following the Bombay attacks ease. † In the wake of the Mumbai attacks, the Pakistani official chose to delay his inspection to avoid inciting an already tense situation.India had threatened to pull out of the treaty as a response to cross-border terrorism in 2001-2002, and has used its control of the upper Indus to exert pressure on Pakistan to halt attacks. Although this may be viewed as using its hegemonic power over water flows to exert pressure, the alternative is that war was avoided through the use of the existing treaty. Should either India or Pakistan see the treaty as having outlived its usefulness, the nations have two choices: nullification or renegotiation.Renegotiation would be the most desirable choice for the nations and the region. Indeed, renegotiation of the treaty may be a necessity. Guarantees of water deliveries through the Indus system may be unsustainable if climate change models are correct. Pakistan is currently able to store only 30 days of water, leaving it highly vulnerable to even mild fluctuations in water flow. This vulnerability exists in a period when the Indus is at its highest flow in 500 years due to the melting of the Himalayan glaciers that feed the system. The expectation, although the calculations differ, is that the flow will slow as the glaciers recede, leaving both India and Pakistan struggling for water. Signs that offers to renegotiate are real would have to include two things; 1. Renegotiation would have to be open to public scrutiny and third party mediation and 2. They would have to include cooperative agreements on joint water projects. Renegotiation of the treaty under these conditions would indicate that both parties are committed to the IWT in some form.Nullification may be more difficult to predict. As stated above, the treaty itself has survived at least three and a half conflicts and terrorist incursions. Escalation of hostilities may not be a reliable indicator of nullification. The current escalation of arbitration demands under the current treaty may provide some warning, should Pakistan reject the findings of the current International Court arbitration. Although the current case was brought over the Indian Kishanga nga dam, it is actually a story of two dams.Pakistan is currently building a dam on the same river, the Neelam-Jhelum Dam. Should arbitration be decided in India’s favor, the Kishanganga dam will divert water away from the Neelam-Jhelum, making the dam useless. Should this occur and the two nations are unable to come to some accommodation, Pakistan may determine that the treaty is no longer in its best interest. Without the treaty its guarantees of water flow into Pakistan, the nation may see war as the only alternative. There are two likely scenarios for future developments with regard to the IWT.The first is and most likely scenario is a renegotiation of the treaty. For renegotiation to occur, it would most likely need to be initiated by India, as such an offer would likely be seen by the Pakistani public as bowing to Indian pressure. In addition, were Pakistan to request a renegotiation, India most likely would have the upper hands in discussions. The catalyst for renegoti ation would most likely be the ongoing demands for arbitration from Pakistan and the continuing delays in Indian construction projects.In return for a greater freedom to build on the upper Indus, India would have to offer significant concessions, the most likely being the instigation of joint projects to ensure more efficient irrigation to Pakistani cropland and more effective flood mitigation. Should India successfully convince Pakistan that a new treaty would provide more favorable water availability and would result in less control over the Indus System by India, then the renegotiation could be both a diplomatic and public relations success.The end result would be that both countries would be much better prepared should the flow of the Indus be reduced in the future. The second scenario is less hopeful and also less likely. Should Pakistan determine that the existing treaty is no longer in its best interest and it believes that Indian projects will result in less water availabili ty on the Indus, Pakistan may nullify the treaty. In this case, war would be highly likely to occur as Pakistan attempts to seize control of Kashmir and the upper Indus River.This scenario itself has three likely outcomes. 1. In order to avoid a nuclear war, the international community brokers a cease-fire. India retains control of Kashmir and effectively ends both Pakistan’s claims to the province and any obligations to allow the free flow of water to Pakistan. While Pakistan would still receive some flow, mainly as a result of flood control measures and sediment flushing from Indian dams, it would not be enough water to enable Pakistan to adequately irrigate or to provide fresh water to its people.The aging irrigation infrastructure would continue to deteriorate, compounding an already untenable situation. The threat of nuclear war would hang over the region for the foreseeable future as radical elements within Pakistan are able to seize power and Pakistan becomes a failed, pariah state. 2. As a result of a brokered cease-fire, Kashmir achieves independence. Kashmir brokers its own water treaty with both India and Pakistan: India agrees to maintain the existing hydroelectric dams and water storage in return for continued access to the electricity being generated.Pakistan continues to receive flow from the Indus River, but at lower levels than under the IWT as Kashmir diverts and stores some of the water for its own irrigation. Pakistan’s irrigation and storage systems continue to deteriorate, but at a less noticeable pace than under the first nullification scenario. Radical elements are able to achieve some power within Pakistan, but moderates are able to maintain control and because of the existing water treaty are able to contract assistance from China and the United States to upgrade irrigation and water storage.Although still a nuclear power, Pakistan is unable to maintain parity with India on a military or economic level, effectively dimin ishing the threat of nuclear war. 3. Pakistan achieves strategic surprise and is able to seize control of Kashmir and the upper Indus River prior to the brokered cease-fire. Rather than increasing the flow of water to irrigate, Pakistan maintains the current hydroelectric systems built by India, selling some of the power to India and diverting the rest for its own use.Pakistan fails to address its own interprovincial water sharing issues: In addition to existing squabbles between Punjab and Sindh, it has added Kashmir to the mix with its own demands for irrigation and fresh water. Although Pakistan is able to maintain water flow to support irrigation, it is below the level of the IWT. India and Pakistan continue their adversarial relationship but without the benefits of diplomatic exchange. Radicals within Pakistan are able to exploit the inequitable division of water between the provinces and, in spite of its Muslim majority, Kashmir never becomes a fully integrated part of Pakista n.Because of its need to maintain both a military balance with India and to secure its facilities against domestic terror attacks, it is unprepared for the dropping water flow due to the recession of the Himalayan glaciers feeding the Indus. The region continues to be an international concern as China and the United States jockey for influence. Although the scenarios regarding a nullification of the IWT may be unduly negative, most academic studies agree that the Indus Water Treaty of 1960 is too important to regional relations for either India or Pakistan to seek an alternative.Whether the treaty continues in its present form, which is increasingly unlikely, is renegotiated as part of a larger brokered deal, or is restructured according to some recognition of Indian responsibility to its neighbor, the treaty has survived an ongoing adversarial relationship for 53 years due to both its effectiveness and its utility. With the worldwide potential for resource scarcity, the potential e xists that other nations sharing water resources could model their own disputes on the IWT, but only if Pakistan and India are able to resolve their own ongoing issues.

Experiment: The Dumb Jock

There were two groups in their experiment. The experimental group was exposed to hints of negative stereotypes through a questionnaire before the examination while the control was exposed to the negative stereotypes after the test. The questionnaire brought to their attention the possibility that they may have been given special treatment and considerations due to the fact that they are athletes. Somehow, the experiment proved that there is a negative correlation between the exposure of the athletes to negative stereotypes and their performance in taking tests.More exposure to negative stereotypes brought lower scores while less exposure to these stereotypes brought higher scores. For the experimental group, it is possible that answering the questionnaire that exposed them to the dumb Jock stereotype lowered their self-regard that led them to getting low test results. The questionnaire gave them the idea that they are only accepted in the university because of their athletic skills a nd not because of their academic skills.With this kind of thinking, they might have exerted less effort in nswering the questions of the test because they do not believe that they will get a high grade. He might probably think that the societys expectations regarding his test scores won't be high and that he, himself, is led to believe that he is accepted in the university as an athlete rather than a student. Similar to the placebo effect, the subject immerses himself to the popular belief and concept of a dumb Jock that might have led him to flunk the test unconsciously when he was given the idea through the questionnaire.The dumb Jock stereotype probably started when the people performing well in thletics happened to be less educated because they spend most of their time honing their athletic abilities rather than their mental abilities. Because of this, people expected less from these athletes and these athletes tend to cling unto mediocrity and expect special considerations beca use of their situation. I think the athletes, themselves, try to fit their description to the society's norms. This observation came from years of experience in an NCAA school where a large portion of the population is comprised of athletes.Although IVe seen some who perform well n academics and athletics, it cannot be denied that there are lots of student-athletes who refuse to exert more effort into their academics simply because they think it is not expected of them to do so. In my past school, they nave tried to explain to us now there are several kinds ot smarts and that each and every one of us simply has our own fortes. I think that what's important is that they are reminded that they are good students who happen to play for the school and not athletes who are required to study while they play.Not only does this straighten their focus, but they are also given the idea that they are accepted as a student not as an athlete. There were instances wherein prestigious schools rejec ted great athletes not because they weren't good enough in their field of sports but because they weren't able to pass the entrance examination. It is important for them to know that they are in their position not entirely because of their athletic prowess but because they are students first and that representing the school comes second.

A World Without the Internet Essay

No internet is a good thing. The internet is the most important, integral and ingenious invention known to the modern world. As a population we have developed our understanding of it until we have finally become dependent on it. Imagine a life without the internet. Imagine this utopia†¦ I know what you’re thinking. How would I research for your history project? Apply for a job? And how am I meant to talk to my friends without my Facebook account? I believe that life without the internet would make the world today a lot fitter, more knowledgeable and a lot more sociable and I am here to tell you why I believe this. see more:without internet I believe that going back in time and using the old fashioned way of research like books and library’s would benefit us as humans greatly. We would all have a wider range of knowledge as well as eliminating one of the major sources of plagiarism. I believe that students would have a broader understanding of the world and its history due to sifting through many books to find the information that is needed instead of typing it into the internet and having the information awarded to you without having to look for it. This change would also mean the would be a lot less coping and pasting meaning people may retain information easier as a result of having to write things out for themselves. There would also be a massive change in the way we communicate if all mobile phones and the internet disappeared. This would result in everyone having better social because communities would have to talk to each other face to face rather than everyone hiding behind a computer screen. Linking into this I believe that our nation would all be fitter by the reason of having to visit friends instead of emailing or ringing and playing outside more instead of games on the internet. Following on from this, many identity theft crimes take place on the internet, meaning the internet can be very unsafe. Bank details wouldn’t be at risk as much if the internet wasn’t around for the reason of it would be a lot harder to get hold of them if they are protected properly. No illegal downloads would take place considering that the internet doesn’t exist; no cyber bulling either thanks to no social sites on the internet. In conclusion, we have to remember that the internet is a relatively new thing to our lives at the moment; many generations coped have without so why is it so hard for us to do? Though it helps us immensely with our everyday lives this change could be a great asset for our ever-growing community.

Constructions of childhood and western ideologies of street children Literature review

Constructions of childhood and western ideologies of street children - Literature review Example Being a child on and of the streets may be different in one aspect, but long term results of the situation is equally harmful as it touches issues on child labor and children’s health. Childhood for Street Children Before identifying the possible consequences of being one of the street children, it is important to internalize the meaning of childhood as a phase and the expected characteristics of ‘normal’ children. According to Glasper and Richardson (2006, p. 298), childhood refers to the earlier phase of a person’s life under 18 years or before reaching young adulthood. Aside from underdeveloped physical qualities which are subject to change as they grow older, children are expected to love play as a usual activity. According to Ginsburg (2007, p. 183), play is important in childhood development because it allows children â€Å"to use their creativity while developing their imagination, dexterity, and physical, cognitive, and emotional strength.† I n other words, play would develop a child’s cognitive skills and tolerance towards unexpected events such as losing in a game and being sport about it. In the United Kingdom, The Children’s Act of 1989 serves as guidelines in which the rights of the child are protected and sustained through the regulations promoted by the Parliament. The legislation encompassed the responsibilities of both the authorities and the parents or guardians. It is ensured that the act â€Å"protect[s] children from the harm which arises from family breakdown or abuse within the family,† however still respecting family lives and avoids â€Å"unnecessary intervention† (The Children's Act 1989. (c.1)). How ever the law protects the children, it is still indefinite if it can really protect their absolute population. Deprivation of basic needs would force underprivileged children to see the public street as a new place in which they can sustain themselves. The history of the lives of the street children can be traced from the nineteenth century onwards, since the growth of the industrial market. Especially in Britain's northern and midland counties, â€Å"child cruelty† was at its peak which gave inspiration to the formation of legislations protecting children’s rights (Shore, 2009, p. 563). The difficulty of their parents to provide them with proper nourishment encouraged these children to be on the streets to start looking for meager amount of money. Lemba (2002, p. 1) of the United Nation Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) reported that most street children are found in the â€Å"market, bars, shopping centers, bus stations, and parks.† Most of these children have minimal or no contact at all with their family. Such descriptions would lead to the definition of street children as: â€Å"children less than 18 years old, males or females, who spend all or most of their time on the streets who maintain minimal contact with their fami lies resulting to lack of supervision, protection or guidance which makes them vulnerable to hazards.† (Ali, n.d., p. 7) Wernham (2004) cited two categories of street children of which she called as children on the street and children of the street. The slight difference of the two phrases is significant in developing further the definition of

Corporate Information Strategy and Management Essay

Corporate Information Strategy and Management - Essay Example The scenario in the world of business is changing every now and then with new entrants in the market making sincere attempts to make it to the top. Any organization either to survive or compete in the industry needs to re-formulate its strategy keeping in view the market condition and rivals. According to Grant (Bowman, E.H and Helfat, C.E., 2001) business strategy deals with the ways in which a single business firm or an individual business unit of a larger firm competes within a particular industry market whereas corporate strategy deals with the ways in which a corporation manages a set of business together. Chew E.K. and Gottschalk, P. (2009) states that strategy is about creating a competitively differentiated position to win customers in the marketplace. Yannis and Treacy (1986) mentioned that senior executives, strategic planners and information system managers are nowadays formulating policies to include information technology to achieve competitive advantage in the industry market. The technology offers great array of capabilities at lower costs that has motivated the companies to utilize the technology for better decision making process. Information technology is useful in trying to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of current organization and out maneuver the others in the competition. The components of corporate strategy, which include internal, competitive and business portfolio strategy, are affected by information technology that improves the efficiency of the firm's operation. It has become necessary in today's competitive climate for every business organization to utilize the information technology in its operations to achieve the objectives in scheduled time. Therefore the present study intends to find the importance of information technology as part of corporate strategy and its usefulness to the management and also to evaluate its impact during the turbulent times of recession when most of the companies were going bankrupt and filing for liquidation. Research Question The present study is research on the importance of information technology in corporate organizations and management in taking decisions with regard to achieving the objectives through various literature reviews. It is intended to study the impact of IT strategy in development of company's internal strategy and how it is useful in attaining its goals and objectives. Therefore, a short study will be carried out in one of the organizations to study its corporate information strategy and how it is effective in taking managerial decision making process. Review of literature Arquilla and Borer (2007, p.4) relating information strategy to history mentioned that the first giant leap came with electrical telegraph that allowed information to move at the speed which was unheard at that time. And presently, Information Technology (IT) is referred to as wildcard in business by Applegate et al (2008, p.1), a source of opportunity and uncertainty, of advantage and risk. It is further stated that the evolution of technology, work and workforce over the past 40 years has dramatically influenced the concept of organizations and the industries and IT is not considered as a back office transactions tool, it has become a strategic part of businesses enabling the redefinition of markets and industries and strategies and designs of firm

Analysis of The Declaration of Independence Essay

Analysis of The Declaration of Independence - Essay Example While the Declaration of Independence demonstrates considerable historical importance, a large part of its lasting appealing is because of the power rhetorical tools the text implements. Within this context of understanding, perhaps the most powerful rhetorical tool is Jefferson’s implementation of pathos to engage the emotional appeal of the readers. From the very opening of the document, Jefferson implements slightly melodramatic language as a means of creating this emotional response within the reader. Consider Jefferson when he writes, When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation (Jefferson). While these textual elements function to establish the purpose of the document, they are also written in a lyrical way that draws the attention of the reader to the importance and viability of this declaration. Evident here, as well as later in the text, is also a carefully crafted rhetorical structure. In these regards, one notes that Jefferson’s sentences are not simply constructed as one might construct a legal document, but are highly considered for things such as alliteration and parallel structure. This is highly evident in the quote above, as well as in statements such as the seminal, â€Å"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness† (Jefferson). Ultimately, this lyrical quality functions within Jefferson’s emotional pathos technique of engaging the reader. In addition to these stylistic eleme nts of rhetoric, the text also implements strong appeals based on logos. Indeed, in considering the Declaration of Independence in terms of logos, one of the most powerful articulations is the role of government. In these regards, the overarching understanding is that it protects citizens’ rights. In these regards, Jefferson makes the seminal statement, â€Å"they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness† (Jefferson). While this is a broad and rhetorical statement, its primary argument holds true. While the Declaration of Independence in large part illustrates the functions of government that England failed to accomplish, in considering some of these points, one demonstrate some of the important roles of government. Regarding England, Jefferson indicates that he has â€Å"refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquis h the right of representation in the legislature† (Jefferson). Here, Jefferson is indicating that the British government failed to provide adequate representation to individuals. Ultimately, when one views the slanted and dysfunctional nature of dictatorships, the importance of this function is made abundantly clear. As the text progresses Jefferson abandons the earlier lyrical quality for the more legal-like structure wherein a series of grievances are listed. This technique has powerful logos appeal as the culmination of these grievances builds such

Intellectual Property Law in the UK Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Intellectual Property Law in the UK - Case Study Example Margaret is currently negotiating with Leo (a Canadian inventor) to move into a partnership contract between them. It has been noted that Leo has emerged with a new idea which later led to the development of a waterproofing compound that can protect fabrics and tents. The compound developed by Leo also has the ability to protect fabrics from sunlight. Leo gets this particular idea from his grandfather who also mentioned this particular technique in his autobiography named ‘Cold Prospector’ which was published by the Manitou Press of Saskatchewan in the year 1932. The compound that has been developed by Leo has a particular chemical substance that is primarily obtained from the sweat gland of Caribou (It is a mammal that lives in the Arctic region). However, this particular chemical can also be easily synthesized through scientific technique in the absence of the chemical that is present in secretions from the sweat glands of the Caribou. While being in the Canadian Insti tute of Arctic Biology as research scientists, he discovered about how Carabiner (chemical secreted from the sweat glands of the Caribou) makes the fur of the mammal waterproof which further give rise to his invention. However, the findings of the research were later on published in the Canadian Nature Journal. He, later on, gave up his job as a research biologist with the Canadian Institute of Arctic Biology and engaged in a further investigation with the assistance of Canadian Mounted Police. While conducting further tests, new facts were discovered regarding the properties of Carabiner. In the latter scenario, Leo applied for patenting his invention in the Canadian Patent Office. Observably, Margaret is in negotiation with Leo to develop an agreement of partnership between the two with regard to the invention of a specific compound by Leo. Since this invention of Leo is quite beneficial and a major source of conducting profitable business, there is always a danger of the idea to be stolen by others who can use it for their benefit. Contextually, Margaret needs to consider certain aspect with regard to protect the invention after she acquires it from Leo through the agreement.  

Do you know who Paul Robeson is Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Do you know who Paul Robeson is - Assignment Example Robeson’s mother, Maria Louisa Bustill came from a well known family of mixed ancestry consisting of Anglo-American, American and Lenape. She died from a house fire when Robeson was just 6 years of age. Robeson’s other siblings were: William Drew Robeson II, Rev. Benjamin C. Robeson, Reeve Robeson and Marian Robeson (Boyle and Bunie 13). Education and Early Life Robeson’s father held a strong belief that African Americans were as good as their whit counterparts. He instilled in his children this notion and made sure that they attended the same schools as white children. Robeson attended Somerville High School in New Jersey where he graduated with honors in 1915. While at the school, he participated in various activities such as acting, singing and athletics (Dorinson and Pencak 23). His academic excellence and activities in school earned him a full academic scholarship at Rutgers University. Being accepted on scholarship at Rutgers was a great feat for the young Robeson since there were only two other African Americans who had achieved the same. He was the only African American student in the university or the whole duration that he was at Rutgers. While in his third year, he became one of the only three classmates to be accepted into the Phi Beta Kappa fraternity. In 1919, he was one of the four students who were selected in the Cap and Skull honor society (28). Robeson continued to be involved in school activities while in Rutgers where he participated in debate and oratorical contests. He was the recipient of the statewide debate contest prize for four straight years (Foner 33). Robeson was also an avid singer and he was part of the campus Glee Club. However, because of the racist environment at the time, he was not allowed to travel with the group for social events and performances. Another hindrance he faced as a result of the racist climate during his studies was being denied the chance to enjoy the festivities of the universityâ€⠄¢s Philoclean Society, even though he was a duly elected member of the literary society (Boyle and Bunie 100). Just like when he was in high school, Robeson was also an all-rounder in campus. He was an excellent sportsman at Rutgers where he took part in American football, basketball, baseball and athletics. His participation in these sports earned him some 15 varsity letters. In football, he played the end position and he was so good at it that he earned himself a name in the first team All-America in 1917 and 1918. He became the first student and player from Rutgers to reach that feat (Duberman and Bauml 20). Despite his prowess in the game of football, Robeson faced numerous racial episodes, for instance when some Southern teams declined to play with a team that had an African American in the lineup. However, this did not deter him and he is considered by many to be one of the greatest football players of his time (22). Robeson was the valedictorian in his 1919 graduation class. Historians have always praised his academic and athletic excellence that few others can measure up to (Larsen 35). After graduating from Rutgers, Robeson enrolled in the Columbia Law School. To pay for his education at Columbia, Robeson worked as an athlete and a performer. He played for the Akron Pros and the Milwaukee Badgers, teams that were part of the American Professional Football Association, which later cam to be known as the National Football League. He also played

The Holocaust. When Did The Nazis Decide on The Final Solution Essay

The Holocaust. When Did The Nazis Decide on The Final Solution - Essay Example It remains unclear whether the Nazi administration declared the final solution. However, the regime employed a number of euphemisms to camouflage their real intentions of annihilating the Jewish population in the expansive Germany. On this account, therefore, the final solution is chief among the vague expressions used by the Nazi government to refer to the spontaneous killing and annihilation of the Jews (Inter alia & Bullock, 1961, 480). Incidentally, the Nazi regime perpetuated the rampant annihilation of Jews throughout its reign, and there was no precise instant when a specialized mission to eradicate Jews was made until 1941. Nevertheless, it is quite relevant to note that there could have been a basis for the resolve to eradicate the Jewish population in Germany by the rogue Nazi administration. For that reason, the final solution could have been a result of systematic considerations and deliberations that eventually settled on the eradication of the Jewish population. Such a sequence of deliberation would point towards the exact cause the Nazi administration endeavoured to achieve through the systematic murder of Jews (Shirer, 1989, 864-865). This paper takes historical account of the holocaust by contemplating on the events leading to the final solution that involved the brutal murder and annihilation of the Jewish population in Germany by the infamous Nazi regime. The Nazis commonly used euphemistic speech to disguise the correct nature of their crimes. They used the expression â€Å"Final Solution† to mean to their agenda to wipe out the Jewish people. It is not recognized when the organizers of Nazi Germany definitively settled on to execute the "Final Solution." The genocide of the Jews was the height of a decade of increasingly brutal discriminatory measures. Under the leadership of Adolf Hitler, the maltreatment and isolation of Jews was executed in stages (Hilberg, 2003, 55). After the Nazi party ascended to power in Germany in 1933, its government-sponsored prejudice led to anti-Jewish laws, economic embargos, and the aggression of the Kristallnacht pogroms, all of which intended to systematically cut off Jews from the general public and coerce them out of the country. After the September 1939 German incursion of Poland (the commencement of WWII), anti-Jewish program escalated to the incarceration and ultimate murder of European Jewry. The Nazis first instituted ghettos (enfolded areas intended to segregate and manage the Jews) in the Generalgouvernement (a region in central with eastern Poland controlled by a German national government) as well as the Warthegau (a region of western Poland seized to Germany). Polish along with western European Jews were extradited to these ghettos where they resided in overcrowded and unhygienic conditions with insufficient food. Following June 1941 German offensive of the Soviet Union, SS (in addition to police units acting as portable murder units) began enormous killing operatio ns intended at entire Jewish groups (Cesarani, 1994, 78). These plated trucks had exhaust pipes rearranged to pump venomous carbon monoxide gas into potted spaces, murdering those sheltered within. They were planned to complement continuing shooting operations. On July 17, 1941, one month after the assault of the Soviet Union, Hitler commissioned SS leader Heinrich Himmler with an obligation for all security affairs in the inhabited Soviet Union. Hitler bestowed Himmler broad power to physically get rid of any perceived dangers to permanent German occupation. A fortnight later, on July 31, 1941, Nazi chief Hermann Goering sanctioned SS

Arthus Evans' contribution Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Arthus Evans' contribution - Essay Example This Minoan civilization became his contribution to stratigraphy-driven archaeology. The Crete excavations that had resulted in the discovery of the Minoan civilization had another essential contribution in store. Based on the Minoan civilization, Arthur Evans developed a relative dating scheme which he named Minoan chronology (MacGillivray 163). Arthur Evans had predominantly managed excavations at Knossos. For this reason, the Minoan chronology is purely attributed to him. This dating scheme would later be applied in Greek and the Cyclades Islands, thereby becoming a plan for dating prehistoric and early historic Aegean events (MacGillivray 174). Arthur Evans was the world-renowned British archaeologist who excavated the palace of Knossos on the Greek island of Crete and developed the theory of Minoan civilization (Roberts 156). He was born on July 8, 1851 and passed away on July 11, 1941. Throughout his academic career, Evans contributed a great number of precious works which include Cretan Pictographs and Pre-Phoenician Script (1895), The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult (1901), and The Palace of Minos (1921-1936) (Karetsou 364). These works have produced significant influence on the development of archaeology particularly in the field of European and Mediterranean Sea area history (Karetsou 381). Panagiotaki (257) contends that Evans also contributed largely to the study of ancient language by defining Cretan scripts Linear A and Linear B. The findings of Evans laid a solid groundwork for later research and provided guidance for the further work on these areas. Evans was drawn to the field of ancient history due to both individual and social reasons. Evans was born in a highly educated and intellectual family. His grandfather was the Headmaster of Market Bosworth Grammar School and received a Master Degree in history. Arthur Evans’ father, John Evans, was capable of reading Latin which led him to large amounts of authoritative academic works

Why does witchcraft continue to intrigue successive generations of Essay

Why does witchcraft continue to intrigue successive generations of Anthropologists - Essay Example They have conducted numerous studies and largely described witchcraft as a psychosocial factor among that exists among societies such as American Indians, early modern Europeans and Africans. The findings have been applied to the study of witchcraft in practices in the earlier and in the contemporary societies. Remarkably, witchcraft plays a significant role in the society, as explained in numerous theories that have been developed by modern and earlier anthropologists. According to Detweiler (1975), numerous theories that have been established by different scholars generally demonstrate that witchcraft acts as a form of social control, serves as a way through which life misfortunes are explained and helps in releasing social tension. These three distinct functions are the reasons as to why witchcraft has intrigued anthropologists throughout since establishment of the discipline of anthropology. This paper looks at these functions of witchcraft in both the modern and in the early soc ieties, as explained by various anthropologists. Discussion Anthropologists have learnt that witchcraft serves as a way of explaining the causes of life misfortunes. Human beings in all societies find explanations for all misfortunes that occur in their lives. In some societies, there are no rational explanations to some disturbing events, using conventional ways. There is high possibility for people in such societies to attribute these events to witchcraft practices. Their thoughts regarding the alternative causes of these events give them logical, coherent explanations which fully or partially satisfy their beliefs. This approach was developed by Evans-Pritchard in his study of Azande witchcraft. Azande is an ethnic group of people that live in Central Africa where they practice agriculture (Evans-Pritchard , 1937). They are famous for their witchcraft called mangu, which plays a significant role in shaping their understanding of the world and occurrences. They believe that some i ndividuals are witches and posses the power of affecting others adversely. This power is believed to be inherited and acts at an unconscious level. The witch is believed to exercise this power physically without conscious intention and without speech or rite. The Azande people attribute most of the misfortunes that occur in their society to witchcraft. In case a misfortune is significant and leads to the suffering of a person, they look for a neighbour of the affected person who might be the source of unfortunate in order to find a resolution. In case they do not find out, they look for a ‘poison oracle’ in order to consults and determine the individual who might be the have caused the misfortune. The members of this society also consult the oracle before engaging in important ventures to determine whether misfortunes will occur. The poison oracle is a chicken which is fed with a particular quantity of poison known as benge. If the chicken or more than one chicken die, this is a sign of misfortune. After the aggressor or the witch is determined, he or she is approached by an intermediary and he or she responds by ‘blowing water’ over the dead chicken’s wing while asserting his or her good intentions towards the harmed person (Evans-Pritchard, 1937). Witchcraft appears in numerous aspects of the Azande and as Evans-Pritchard noted, it plays a role in determining their chances for luck or adversity. Generally, it plays a bog role in explaining particularity of events. Evans-Pritchard illustrates that when an experienced woodcarver splits wood perfectly during his work, the split is

The First Hundred Days of FDR and Obama in the Presidential Seat Essay Example for Free

The First Hundred Days of FDR and Obama in the Presidential Seat Essay Two Presidents took up the Presidential seat under the time of an economic recession in the United States. These two are Former President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (widely known as FDR) and President Barrack Obama, the newly elected President in last year’s elections. Both have entered the presidential scene in a time of great economic crisis; in FDR’s time was the Great Depression and in Obama’s, a mirror or reoccurrence of the Great Depression. The former successfully dealt with the Great Depression, rescuing the country from economic collapse and impending civil unrest—if the crisis would continue. The latter is expected by the public to deliver the same performance under the same economic situation, hoping that everything would be fine in the nearest possible future. Comparing the two president’s first hundred days in the presidential seat, they exert the aura of hope as seen by the public eye when they first took up the presidential seat, to deliver the country from a worsening economic meltdown. In his first few days of office, President Franklin D. Roosevelt immediately aimed for rescuing the United States’ economy from the Great Depression—a massive economic recession. It was a challenge for the President-elect to save the country from such a sinkhole but he already laid out plans on how he would be able to achieve this primary goal. The first thing that he aimed for was to close all the banks in the country, declaring a bank â€Å"holiday†. This was done in order for the government and these bankers to assess the situation and plan out a strategy in order to regain control of the deteriorating economy. The Emergency Banking Bill was implemented in order to reorganize banks in the country, and later to reopen these under a new structure, which proved to be a great move by the president. After his terms in the office, he was regarded as a model for succeeding presidents to follow as he was able to achieve so many great things in the face of crisis—from the Great Depression to the Second World War. During his first hundred days, he was able to stabilize the American economy, avoiding its further downfall. Presidents that followed tried to recreate FDR’s term. The recent president-elect Barrack Obama has probably felt the same pressure as what FDR felt during his first hundred days in the office, entering the scene upon which the country is suffering a similar economic downturn; Dà ©jà   vu as many economists and historians would believe. However, the question still remains: would he be able to pull off the same stunts as that of the late FDR? Somehow, President Obama is showing some signs of promise in his first few days in the office. He initially concentrated with the stabilizing the country’s economy but later on concentrated on establishing better relationships with other countries—some of which are â€Å"enemies† of the United States. Even so, it still did not replicate the great achievement of FDR in his first few days in office: saving the economy from a deep sinkhole. However, it could also be assumed that Obama’s version of the â€Å"rescue† is still on the planning stages as the administration could not afford any mistakes in conducting this economic rescue plan. Also, the people have not given up hope on President Obama to deliver them from this economic tragedy in the United States. There is not much difference between the two except for the fact that FDR has successfully stabilized the economy to a more controllable level in his first hundred days in the office. He exercised an immediate relief plan for the United States government and its people, in order to save them from the spites of the Great Depression. President Obama aims to replicate this achievement as the country is currently facing the same situation. At the same time, he aimed to establish better relationships with other nations, control overseas matters, and turn the government into a transparent entity. These two presidents have shared a similar fate when they entered the presidency. They were expected by the public to relieve the country from further economic downfall, as these people considered them as a ray of hope for a better America in the future. References Kangas, S. (1997). The First 100 Days. The Great Depression: Its Causes and Cure. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http://www.huppi.com/kangaroo/First100days.htm Smith, J. E. (2009, January 16). How F.D.R. Made the Presidency Matter. 100 Days: Starting the Job, From F.D.R. to Obama. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http://100days.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/how-fdr-made-the-presidency-matter/ Talev, M. (2009, April 26). Obama’s first 100 days in office haven’t been quite. McClatchy Newspapers. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http://news.yahoo.com/s/mcclatchy/20090426/pl_mcclatchy/3217776

Reasons to Study in the UK

Reasons to Study in the UK International students travel to UK to study for different reasons despite the cost implications involved. In other to overcome certain negative but compulsory experiences such as culture shock, depression and home sickness etc. Students must carefully manage their time well during their study stay in the UK. If these measures are adhered to, international students will not find it difficult studying in the UK. Due to the fact the UK has a concussive environment for teaching and learning styles. INTRODUCTION Studies have shown that there is no superior culture over another, every culture is unique in its own way, and different people have different culture. Culture, can be described as the mode of dressing, eating, communication styles, languages spoken, teaching and learning styles, reaction to time(time management) by a certain group of people. Culture varies from place to place in the sense that different societies and communities adopt different cultures. This report examines and analysis the different reasons why international students come to study in the UK and the challenges they face here. Some of these reasons identified are: to learn a new language, travelling opportunities, to enable one understand another culture first hand, to develop skills, opportunity to make new friends around the world, enables one to know more about his or her own culture, helps to widen ones global view, to enhance employment opportunity, enables one to break out of ones academic routine of home country and finally helps to add value or improves ones degree. Haven known these reasons, for coming to study in the UK, this report further gives some challenges and key issues experienced by international students. Some of these issues identified are: culture shock, teaching and learning styles (similarities and differences between the UK and home country), time management issues, fees and funding, and finally regular problems faced by international student s. Some of the key issues which shall be discussed in this report are culture shock, problems faced by international students, time management, fees and funding and teacher/student role expectations in the UK. MAIN BODY/ANALYSIS The united kingdom is a very nice and wonderful place to study and students from different countries prefer to study in UK this is due the quality of the education and the students also has an opportunity to gain a prestigious qualification. This report therefore provides an insight in to the perceptions of the international students and their experiences here in UK. The experiences of the students studying here in UK will be discussed under the following headings they are culture shock, time management, fees and funding, teacher/student role expectation and the problems faced by international students in UK. All these will be discussed below. CULTURE SHOCK The term culture was defined by Bock(1970) as primarily an emotional reaction that follows from not been to understand control and predict another`s behaviour. It can also be described as a way of life in a particular region in terms of customs, traditions etc.  Ã‚  Each and every nation is deeply rooted within its own culture. The  culture  makes each country very special and different from one another, so does the person belong to a particular culture. Therefore the role of the culture in the process of national progress is unquestionable. The way we are brought up and our personality is built up has  a lot to do with the culture. Therefore  culture means a lot to the nation as well as to the  people. It is a fact that we always  prefer to hold on to our culture as we attach an  emotional  component to our culture. Therefore  one can be easily offended in cultural issues.   It is very difficult for a person to understand and get adapted to another culture in case the  situation  demands. Therefore when we visit a  foreign  nation, one of the difficulties we encounter is the cultural issue. Due to our way of living, customs and manners change completely and it becomes a novel experience to us. Sometimes we get confused regarding what to adopt and  what  not. Some times when in the foreign country, we are forced to adopt certain manners  which are exact opposite to our idea of culture, as a way of showing civility. So it can cause a lot of discomfort to us,  especially with a person who is very new to the country.  Therefore  it paves the way for a cultural shock for the individuals new to the country. For the individuals very new to the country, the one way cultural shock arises is through the communication issues. Communication is everything to an individual. So when there is not a space for an easy  communication, it really frustrates the individual. But  here in this country, language barrier is not at all a matter as  English  stands as the  global  language. But for an individual from a non-European country, it is not very easy to catch the foreign accent  which with they speak  English. Once he or she gets  accustomed to the  foreign  accent, which is no longer a matter to him or her.   Ã‚  Ã‚   Cultural shock is not something which we need to be scared of; it can be overcome through proper planning and understanding. Adopt the things which fits us, feels us comfortable, and which seems to be good. Through this we can minimize the shock since a change has never been difficult for human beings.   Few things which you find difficult to get adjusted in the initial stages are: The climate   Food   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  (Climate change and food is not related to the culture, but its a huge  task for foreigners to get adjusted with the climate and typical food over there) 3.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Social behaviour Language   It creates a little discomfort to us. But time makes it manageable To sum up, cultural shock occurs as the result of ones total immersion in a new culture. It happens to people who have been transplanted to abroad.  As it is mentioned earlier, the problem with the culture shock is mainly for the new comers.  Newcomers may be little anxious and worried because they even do not speak the language as exact as it is, know the customs, or understand peoples behaviour.  But the problem no longer exists as he or she starts understanding and learning their customs and manners and begins to get adjusted to the culture in a way that is not challenging ones own culture. Therefore the process needs time as  it is a process to obtain a true realization of the atmosphere we are. PROBLEMS FACED BY INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS As human beings every individual has to face different kinds of problems in their life. Problems can happen at any time to anybody in any situation but we should try to handle all the problems. In this context, that is studying in UK the international students should face different kinds of problems some of them are Language barriers communication skills Plagiarism Acceptance of culture Problems relating jobs Immigration Difference in education system I. Language is one of the important medium of communication. Without communicating each other we cannot understand others views, ideas and feelings and we cannot transfer our perceptions to others as well. People from different countries they use different languages not only the language but also the accent, pronunciation, style of talking, way of expressing their feelings everything varied from each other. So when these people come to UK to continue their higher education its quite difficult to adjust with each other. For example people from Nigeria have a different style of talking especially their accent is very different so the people from other countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh etc. have a slight problem to follow their accent. II. Secondly, the biggest trouble faced by the students is plagiarism. In some countries for example in India, there is no problem like plagiarism while submitting the assignments. So once we started to study here it is a big tension for the students at the time of assignment submission and they are working hard to lessen the percentage of plagiarism. Not only the plagiarism but also the way of submitting the assignments is also different in many countries. Here first we should submit the assignments through breo and again we should submit it in a different way. All these are fairly new to the international students. III. Culture is something an individual should follow through out his life. So when we go to some other place where the culture is different it is very difficult to accept that. Culture reflects an individuals character, behaviour and over all it gives an outline of that person. If we believe in one culture its not very easy to change that. Other important fact is that here the living style and dressing style is different when we compare this with Indian culture. So people from India have a great difficulty to adjust with this culture. IV. One of the biggest challenges faced by the international students is the living expenses. Here standard of living is high so meeting the expenses is a big problem for the students especially if they have no job. Then getting a part time job is not very easy here because most of the companies prefer full time workers and the increasing number of students is also a big problem. The vacancies are less for the part timers but the intake of students in the universities is increasing per year. V. Immigration is not a very big deal for the international students but sometimes it may cause some problems, especially at the time of immigration the officers ask questions if they feel any kind of doubts or if they are not satisfied with our answers may be they will reject our visa. Problems can happen to anybody especially when we are living in another country. But never kneel down before the problems instead we should try to overcome the problems and succeed in our life. Lincy Mathew ID No: 1031582 TIME MANAGEMENT IMPORTANCE OF TIME Time plays great role in everyones life. Everyone has equal time. If nobody uses his time correctly, he will never have it back again. There is no one who can think that he will be success in his life without giving any importance to time. There are so many people who are famous in their different fields, why? Because, they know the importance of time. They spend their time to get that achievement. Time is very essential like our breath to live. We can never think about success without thinking about time. So it is very important to everyone give importance to time. TIME MANAGEMENT There are so many examples of time management. We can take an example of farmer if he will not reap his crop on time then what will happen? Obviously, he will have to face many problems which can be terrible. So time management is very important if we want to become success person in our life. For student, its really necessary for the reason that they must have to be punctual in their every task, not only in exam but also in every second of their study. Regarding my experience of student life In UK, we have to be practical in our study and give much time in study rather than other work. We should manage our time. If students do their work in time and serial ways then they realise that they have lot of time to do their work. Everyone knows the starting time of our life but nobody can think about the last time of our life. Hence we dont know how much time is left in our hand. WAY OF MANAGING TIME Using time table is one of the best way of utilize our sufficient time. In student life, to get achievement in study every students must have to follow their adequate time table. Everyone is different in their nature so using time table is also different from each other. But important thing is that we all must have to use our own timetable. It ensures that students are well prepared and give importance to their routine work and complete their every work in time. Make a good study habit; we should do our work regularly. The time which we spend in waiting, walking and so on, we can use this time to remind our work that we have learned. Make weekly schedule it can help the students to utilize their time. Make daily list to do routine work and study period. BENEFITS OF TIME MANAGEMENT Time management helps to control our life. The activity of pre planning helps us lot. It improves our confidence and efficiency. Without time management students can never think about to meet the goals. Only if manage time can enable them to meet the goals. Time is like an ice-cream, use it before it melts. Therefore give importance to time because it never comes back. From : Sandip Dandi FEES AND FUNDING Although the funding for the higher education has been quite a costly affair, it is being ignored by the individuals who are focussed towards their career especially when it comes to funding of the tuition fee for the studies abroad it is a critical aspect as many criterion have to be met to ensure a bright and purposeful career overseas. Considering the globalization factor overseas education is being opted by millions around the world. As a result even the governments of the developed nations have been signing pacts to exchange the student population for a better learned society. Though funding the tuition fee is one aspect, it has its after effects basing on the approach and the interest of an student shows to start a career on a international note. For example : Considering the tuition fee in the country like united kingdom , one can find the difference as the local students and people from European union are charged roughly around 3000 pounds, Where as the fee for the same course for the international students is 9800 pounds. There are different aspects to be taken care of like the bank loan, maintenance of funds for the student, etc. Hence the legislations of the developed nations should implement a new laws so that the funding issue for the merit students becomes easier .It is appreciable that the universities have started a helping hand in this regard. For example; the university offers scholarship and fee discount if it is paid at once and its nearby 500-1500 pounds. The British government in 2003 has introduced the system of variable tuition fee to help and support the education in the united kingdom and it has been successful in winning the votes of confidence .The government of united kingdom has also taken the initiative of solving the financial issues regarding the funding of education by granting the part time work for the students up to 20 hours per week and it had another practice called post study work permit , which will be granted for the span of two years . This has helped the students to a large extent in clearing their educational, maintenance loans etc. This has also given rise to the chances of increasing settling options in their respective career thus by improving the financial status of the students. Finally the funding factor of foreign education should be delta with great source of understanding and with appropriate information to ensure a peace. TEACHER /STUDENT ROLE EXPECTATION IN UK There are differences in learning styles when collated to one`s country of origin and this presents a difficulty for international students, Therefore in order to explain the differences in learning styles we will look at Hofstede` s (1986) view on cultural differences in teaching and learning which will be classified according to the culture of the society. Thus United Kingdom can be classified under these four dimensions of cultures and this also has an impact on the teaching and learning styles in England which will be discussed below. To further explain the teaching and learning styles in UK ,points will be taken from, Hofstede (1986) cultural differences in teaching and learning, which suggested that societies can be classified under the following cultural dimensions namely power distance societies, individualist societies, weak uncertainty avoidance societies and masculine societies .Firstly UK can be described as a small power distance society in the sense that in terms of their learning styles it is discovered that in school here teachers are expected to respect the independence of their students but in other countries like Nigeria which can be classified as large power distance society students are expected to respect their teachers, also in UK students are allowed to ask questions freely in class while in Nigeria the reverse is the case the student is allowed to talk only when invited by the teacher, during lectures in class a two-way communication is used to enhance learning therefore students are required to begin the communication and also students can oppose the teacher in class this issue of communication in class still affects some international students because they still have the fear in them that nobody has the right to speak whilst the lecture is going on or even to go contradicting the teacher. Also some issues that needs to be mentioned here is that in schools here in UK when conflict arises between the teacher and student, the parents or guardian of the student is expected to be in the supporting side of the student. Students here in UK prefer the young teachers than the old ones, in this case we the international students prefers the older teachers whom we believe has the skills of teaching and can as well impact knowledge in us. (this is from Nigerian perception),also in UK emphasis is laid on impersonal truth rather than wisdom which can in any principle be acquired from any capable person. Secondly United Kingdom can be described as a fairly masculine society in terms of their learning styles, this is because in schools male students tend to avoid traditionally feminine academic courses, students also choose academic courses to study in pursue of career opportunities. Here in UK students failure is a serious issue and its a severe blow to one`s self image . Teachers place a high esteem on best students in order to motivate the average students to work harder, it is however discovered that the Education system here in UK rewards academic performance for instance they offer scholarship to students all over the world. Thirdly in looking at the learning styles in UK from an individualist point of view it is discovered that they believe in permanent education that one is never too old to learn, here students are given the chance to do certain things themselves that is they are expected to learn how to learn, for example the university of Bedfordshire students are given access to learning facilities e.g. libraries filled with textbooks, journals, newspapers, access to computers in the library with Wi-Fi , free internet for students who live in the school hostel also library services can be accessed from home through digital library you can read e-journals, search data bases, check the catalogue and so on, All these resources provided by the school was to ensure the students learns how to learn and not solely depending on the lecturers for information. It is also found here in UK that lecturers tends to be unprejudiced they never give room for any preferential treatment they treat everybody as equal u nlike Nigeria where lecturers give preferential treatment to those related or close to him or rather those from the same ethnic background with him. In UK Education is viewed as way of enhancing one`s economic importance and self esteem based on skills and suitability, high value is placed on one`s suitability on skills and knowledge acquired rather than acquiring certificates. Finally United Kingdom is classified under weak uncertainty avoidance societies in terms their learning styles, however in this type of society students are convenient in an unstructured learning condition in school such as vague objectives, broad assignments, no timetables and so on, the international students finds it very hard to cope with this situation. Their view of a good teacher is one who uses a plain language to teach, hence teachers are allowed to say I dont know in class. Also it is being discovered that the students and teachers here are expected to restrain their emotions rather than expressing it. Students are rewarded for creativity. The learning styles in United Kingdom are completely different from other countries, for example in university of Bedfordshire the school environment is well structured and it is a conducive place to study. Generally United Kingdom is really a wonderful place to be in terms of academics. IBEKWE LINDA .U. 1031633 CONCLUSION In conclusion, this report shows that international students must undergo certain experiences such as culture shock as a result of change in the environment but further indicates that potential international students shouldnt be worried about that because it is a normal phenomenon that must occur. The report clearly also stated the importance of managing time through the use of time tables and related tools for managing time. Another issues analysed is the learning styles in Uk. It observed that this style were they make their lectures interactive ,enable their students learn independently and this is also achieved through the use of learning material in the libraries,internet,and other information sources. The report also indicated other problem like, immigration problems of unemployment, acceptance of culture, plagiarism, language barriers, and differences in education system. The report finally concludes by appreciating the environment of the UK as conducive for learning for inter national students. RECOMMENDATION This report shown the difficulties faced by international students in trying to adapt to a new academic environment and also providing a student view on possible approaches for improvement of their experiences. However some recommendations are made to enable the institutions in UK to make some changes in which will help enhance the students experience in studying in UK they are: firstly the institution needs to look into the teaching and learning styles to know whether they fit into the specific study needs of these students, also tutors should judge the suitability of strategies when accessing cohorts of these students for example the use of group work. Secondly the institution should make a provision for the students to instigate the social adjustment they student need to make. Thirdly the use of ice breakers is very important in the first one or two classes this helps students to get to know each other very well and also feel less self-conscious .finally tutors should also bear in mind that non-verbal communication is also a useful way of communicating in class and that there is a need for sensitivity towards cultural diversity in the classroom.

Sport Injury Prevention Strategies Health And Social Care Essay

Sport Injury Prevention Strategies Health And Social Care Essay Groin pain occurs frequently in sporting activities such as running, kicking, soccer, rugby, and ice hockey which involve quick accelerations, decelerations and sudden rapid directional changes (Cowan et al., 2004 and Verrall et al., 2005). Hormon (2007) suggested that, groin pain may be caused by a sports hernia, osteitis pubis, nerve entrapment, adductor and Iliopsoas muscle strain or any combination of these entities. The most common location (>50%) of groin pain reported in athletes is the adductor muscle tendon region (Holmich. 2007). The assessment and treatment of groin pain in athletes is difficult as the anatomy of the groin region is complex and the ability to imagine the anatomy of the groin area is important for both physical examination and the differential diagnosis (Vincent and Victoria, 2001). Holmich (2007) reports that the cause of chronic groin pain left in debate and systematic clinical assessments using reliable examination methods were not carried out in studies and well-defined diagnostic entities are not reported. Please find the appendix i (a) for some of the terms used frequently. Janda (1992), reports that in any sport the first part of injury management is injury prevention. Emery (2003) describes that, to develop and evaluate the sport injury prevention strategies, a good understanding of injury rates, the participant population at risk and the risk factors associated with injury for the population need to be first identified. In athletic population; groin strain injury incidence definition may be obtained by using a standardised exposure of actual player hours separated between training time and game time. The risk of injury is different for different sports (Junge et al, 2006). When taking the severity of the injury into account in a English Football Association team that the overall risk to professional athletes is profoundly high approximately 1000 times higher among professional football players than for high-risk industrial occupations (Drawer and Fuller2002). The high rate of injury incidence among different sports may have lead researchers to attemp t to identify risk factors and preventive methods for different sport injuries. Meeuwisse and Bahr (2009), defines risk factors are the ones which causes the athletic injury or sufficient enough to cause injury. The risk factors for groin injury in sport are considered as intrinsic risk factors like age, gender and physical fitness, level of play, anatomical alignment of structures, previous injury and body composition. The extrinsic risk factors such as protective equipment, sports equipment, environment factors like weather, surface of play, and human factors like opponent behavior, playing situation and also biomechanical description make the athlete susceptible to injury. These risk factors were further classified by Meeuwisse and Bahr (2009), as modifiable or non modifiable. Endurance, strength, balance and decreased levels of sport-specific training are some of the modifiable risk factors. These risk factors can be altered to reduce the groin injury rates through the implementation of injury prevention strategies. Age, gender, previous groin injury are considered as non modifiable risk factors for groin injury. These factors cannot be altered to reduce injury rates through the implementation of injury prevention strategies but facilitate the identification of the sport population at risk. See Appendix ii for injury causation model by Meeuwisse (2006) The groin region is a highly mobile area consists of where abdomen meets the legs and contains the structures of the perineum (Timothy and Steven, 2008).Therefore, it includes the lower rectus abdominal muscles, the inguinal region, the symphysis pubis, the upper portions of the adductor muscles of the thigh, and the genitalia, also the scrotum in males. Falvey et al, (2008) described the groin region by setting out borders which comprises of groin, gluteal and greater trochanter of femur called 3G triangle, for sports medicine professionals to help understand the diagnosis of groin pain easier by the origin of symptoms. (Adapted from Falvey et al, 2009. The groin pain: patho- anatomical approach to the diagnosis of chronic groin pain in athletes). The anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS) and pubic tubercle forms the apex of groin triangle, as this point refers to the 3G point. The land marks of the superior border of the triangle forms by the line between the pubic tubercle and ASIS, whereas line from the pubic tubercle inferiorly forms the medial border and line from ASIS superiorly forms the lateral border. See appendix i (b) for diagram for muscles of the groin region. The bodys center of gravity is located within the pelvis, anterior to the second sacral vertebra; thus, the loads that are generated or transferred through this area are important in virtually every athletic effort (Anderson, et al 2001).Loads of up to eight times body weight has been demonstrated in the hip joint during jogging, with potentially greater loads may present during vigorous athletic competition (Crowninshield, et al 1978), the structures around the hip are uniquely adapted to transfer such forces. The most common fracture is to the femur may caused by the force transmitted from the hip joint, when subject to a combination of axial compression, torsion, shear and bending loads which can cause fracture at various sites. Imbalance between the loads applied to the pelvis and the integrity of the pelvic structures, resulting into overuse problems. Pubic symphysis displays its greatest mobility when it is exposed to shear forces. Pizzari et al (2008) reports that the imbalanc es may be occurring from inadequate pelvic integrity which is intrinsic risk factor and alterations in the loads as extrinsic risk factor or sometimes combination of these two can cause osteitis pubis, which in turn contributes to groin pathology. Therefore, in prevention of osteitis pubis sometimes involves early recognition of risk factors at the beginning of the season may be appropriate. Having known the complexity of anatomy and biomechanics groin region, it may be useful to develop comprehensive understanding of risk factors causing the groin pain to develop effective preventive measures among different sports. Research Question The first step in the process of any research study is to form a research question. Four components should be considered when forming a research question (Meade and Richardson 1997). These include the client group being investigated, interventions, comparative interventions and the outcomes used to measure the effect. Is identifying risk factors and causes help athletes in preventing groin pain? a literature review. Objective of the study This review examines the studies on identifying the risk factors and causes of the groin pain and does this helped in preventing groin pain, and aims to develop new insights based on current knowledge on the topic by reviewing the literature. Aims of the study The aim of this study is to review the evidence to see if there are positive benefits (decreasing the incidence of injuries) of identifying risk factors for causing groin pain. These positive outcomes may help health care professionals involved to prevent athletes groin pain. Chapter 1 Preliminary Literature Review In this review there will be a broad preliminary literature review on groin pain, where incidence, epidemiology, risk factors and causes in relation to groin pain will be discussed. Importance and principles of injury prevention are discussed in detail. Epidemiology of groin injuries in athletes Injury was defined as any event that kept a player out of a practice or a game or required the attention of the team physician (Molsa, et al 1997). In professional soccer, groin injuries comprises of up to 10% of all the injuries (Hawkins et al, 2001), but are responsible for a much larger proportion of time lost from training and play (Muckle, 1982). Brooks et al (2005) have reported on match injuries associated with 546 rugby union players at 12 English Premiership clubs in two seasons. They found that incidence, severity of groin, hip and buttock injuries as per every 1000 player hours and severity in number of days absence. In elite level soccer, groin strain injuries have been reported to account for 20% of all muscle strain injuries and more than 40% in ice hockey and they also account for >10% of all injuries in elite levels of ice hockey, soccer, and athletics. In Australian Rules football (AFL), the number of games lost was more at all levels of the game due to hip and groin injuries. AFL statistics for seasons 2001-2006 saw groin pathologies accounting for an average of 13.0 missed games per club per season involving an average of 3.25 players per team. Over this same period these groin injuries had a 23% recurrence rate. Walden et al (2007) studied in professional sports, and have found groin injury to be the fourth most common injury affecting soccer players. Orchard and Seward (2002) consider groin injury the third most common injury in Australian Rules football and it also has a high prevalence in ice hockey and rugby. But in considering time lost from injury, groin pain plays only next to fracture and joint reconstruction (Brooks et al, 2005). Groin injury is among the top one to sixth most common cited injury in the Olympic sports of ice hockey, speed skating, soccer, and athletics. Groin injuries account for 3-11% of all injuries i n some Olympic sports including ice hockey, speed skating, soccer, swimming, and athletics. Causes of groin injuries Groin pain in athletes can be classified into athletic and non athletic causes. (Please find a table in appendix iii for causes of groin pain). Adductor muscle strains and osteitis pubis are the most common musculoskeletal causes of groin pain in athletes, which are often difficult to distinguish (Morelli and Smith, 2001). Hip injuries associated with sports participation often refer pain to the groin. Exclusion of rare differential diagnoses is often the focus of clinical testing and imaging. Awareness of overlapping pain referral patterns from the hip joint, the lumbar spine, lumbar facet joints, and sacroiliac joint and abdominal structures is important for accurate diagnosis of the cause of groin pain (Katherine, 2008). Katherine also reports, the common condition that may be associated with acute or chronic groin pain due to Iliopsoas myofascial pain which can be persists as primary problem or secondary problem and suggests Iliopsoas muscle should be included in the assessment of groin pain. Ekberg et al. (1988), found the difficulty in diagnosing the groin pain as it presented with more than one diagnosis in 19 of 21 athletes with longstanding groin pain. Holmich et al. (1999) noticed signs for osteitis pubis in over 60% of their athletes who were primarily diagnosed as suffering with adductor complaints. Please find the table for differential diagnosis for groin pain in appendix iv 1.3 Principles of Injury prevention Bahr et al, (2006) described the sports injury prevention program into primary, secondary and tertiary (Bahr, 2006 for Clinical sports medicine). They defined primary prevention as health promotion and injury prevention by means of application of external supports for body parts to protect from injury, even for those without any previous injury. Secondary prevention included early diagnosis and intervention to limit the development of disability or reduce the risk of re- injury and this is considered as treatment for any acute injury. Lastly, the tertiary prevention is the focus on rehabilitation to reduce and to correct an existing disability in relation to an underlying disease. This may refer to the process of rehabilitation following any sports injury and bringing back to the level of normal sport. The successful injury prevention strategies consist of a model developed by Van Mechelen et al (1997). The first step is to determine the incidence and severity of the sport injury problem, needs to be established prior to identifying risk for injury. Van Mechelen (1992) developed a model that follows sequence of prevention which is widely used from past decade. Four steps of Van mechelen strategies are: (a) identify the incidence of specific sports Injury (b) secondly, identifying the risk factors and mechanism of injury considered (c) finally, develop the interventions likely to reduce the risk of injury should be introduced and their efficacy monitored and (d) by repeating the step (a) monitor the efficacy of preventive measures. Further to Van Mechelen model, Finch (2006) came up with six staged approach to Translating Research into Injury Prevention Practice framework which is widely known as Finch TRIPP prevention framework. This approach suggests, those research studies that include sports participants, bodies and coaches can prevent injuries, but this may be only possible in broad research studies that may lead to real world injury prevention benefits. 1.4 Importance of injury prevention Bahr et al (2002) reports that in Scandinavia, sports injuries are the main cause for hospitalization among children in every one third and injuries seen by a physician, every sixth is caused due to sports participation. During 1997 and 1998, in the United States, annually an estimated 3.7 million (approximately 11%) sports and recreation-related injuries visited emergency department. In these, 2.6 million visits were persons aged 5-24 years and the medical charges for these visits were 500 million US$ annually (Bahr et al., 2002). Injury prevention in sport has several benefits; some of them may include greater health of the individual, long-term in the activity and reduced costs to the individual, the sport, the health care system, and the society. The ultimate benefit would be the potential for better performance. The treatment of sports-related injuries can be time consuming, difficult and expensive, thus making preventive strategies justified, not just from a medical perspective but also economically (Scanlan and MacKay 2001). The significance in knowing about risk factors and preventive strategies may help athletes in decresing the chances of any fresh injuries, reduces training absences, financial burden on sports clubs, authorities, and society and most importantly avoids re-injury (Chalmers, 2002). Chapter 2 Methodology This chapter discusses literature reviews as a research methodology in relation to research paradigms and the rationale for conducting a literature review. Also discussed are different types of literature reviews, advantages and disadvantages of performing a literature review and the process of conducting a literature review including ethical considerations. 2.1 Research Methodology: Hart (1998) defined research methodology as a system of methods and rules to facilitate the collection and analysis of data. A literature review that is performed in a systematic way is a research methodology (Aveyard 2007). 2.2 Research Paradigm The first consideration when addressing any research question is the research paradigm. Paradigms can be defined as the framework that has unwritten rules but directs actions. The term paradigm describes a system of ideas or world view used by the community of researchers to generate knowledge. It is a set of assumptions, research strategies and criteria for rigour that are even taken for granted by the community (Guba and Lincoln 1994). So paradigms are the ways of understanding reality and they contain some assumptions about the reality and find the ways to know the reality. Guba (1990) suggested that paradigms can be characterized by the way their proponents respond to three basic question, they are ontological, epistemological, and the methodological questions. There are many paradigms, but positivism and constructivism are considered as main paradigms. 2.3 Rationale for conducting a literature review The electronic databases with healthcare literature were easily accessible for the author from University of Central Lancashire. These databases consisted of all up- to- date studies on Groin pain and prevention. A literature review is a suitable methodology for identifying, evaluating, and interpreting the existing body of recorded work produced by researchers, scholars, and practitioners (Cormack 1991). Steward and Kamnis (1993) recommended that literature review is a useful tool to compare already existing data to analyse and generate new ideas on topic of interest and also not expensive and time consuming. As a research tool, the literature review has few disadvantages, because it uses previous research developed in different conditions and different backgrounds, and there is a possibility of unintended bias when collecting data (Stewart and Kamnis 1993). Accuracy of the synthesis of findings depends on the person who is critiquing and drawing up the synthesis of the literature (Burns and Grove 1995). Ethical consideration for a literature review Literature review is a secondary research (Aveyard 2007), during which participants do not come in direct contact with the researcher. Hence literature reviews do not require an ethical approval. But some ethical aspects have to be considered during literature review. One should treat peoples research with respect and ensure that the studies included are represented accurately in the review. 2.5 Literature review The literature review is defined as the selection of available documents (both published and unpublished) on the topic, which contain information, ideas, data and evidence written from a particular standpoint to fulfill certain aims or express certain views on the nature of the topic and how it is to be investigated, and the effective evaluation of these documents in relation to the research being proposed (Hart 1998, p27). Rees (1997) defined literature review, as the critical examination of a representative selection of published literature on a particular topic or issue. The literature review might identify gaps in the previous literature that new research can address, or might suggest research to be replicated (Aveyard 2007). A comprehensive and competently carried out review enables a health care practitioner to apply a body of research evidence to practice rather than to rely on individual studies (Aveyard 2007). This emphasizes the place of a literature review in building the evidence based practice. 2.6Types of literature review Gill (2000) suggests that there are three types of literature review. They are: a general survey of the literature, a focused survey of the literature and a systematic review. In a general survey the researcher is aimed at comprehensive search of literature within certain clear parameters (Gill 2000). A focused survey is a comprehensive search of literature with emphasis on the selectivity of the literature in terms of its appropriateness to the authors approach to their research study (Gill 2000). A systematic review follows a strict protocol which includes precisely defining the research question, an exhaustive literature search of all the studies that address the question, assessing the quality of those studies using predefined criteria, exclusion of studies that fail to meet the criteria and provide an overview of the results of the included studies (Gill 2000). The type of literature review used in the current review is focused survey. Chapter 3- Methods This chapter explains how data was searched for this project, how the inclusion and exclusion criteria were selected and what key words were used to search the articles. The research question for this current review is: Is identifying risk factors and causes help athletes in preventing groin pain? 3.1 Search strategy A comprehensive search strategy was developed to identify and locate the key literature on published material on groin pain. As much as possible literature relevant to the topic was identified. Search terms Groin pain in athletes, risk factors, causes and prevention were used to help select articles for the review. 3.2 Inclusion criteria The following inclusion criteria were used, Risk factors and causes of groin pain Prevention of groin pain Articles published up to till date from 2000 Age of participants between18-65 years Articles written in English 3.3 Exclusion criteria Not relevant to groin pain and prevention Articles published before 2000 Excluded were non-English publications Articles on non athletic population 3.4 Search results Literature search was performed using the key words with inclusion and exclusion criteria in mind. A literature search was carried out electronically in SPORTdiscus, MEDLINE with full text (Medical Literature Online), OVID () healthcare databases using the University online library. A manual search was also performed to identify articles related to risk factors, causes and prevention of groin pain. The number of studies included and excluded from the literature search for the review is summarized in the table below. Database Total Included Excluded SPORTdiscus full text 145 6 139 MEDLINE with full text 24 2 22 OVID 23 2 20 Chapter 4 Results This chapter focuses on the findings of the articles in database. The electronic literature search initially identified 191 suitable articles. After reading the abstracts and applying inclusion and exclusion criteria, 10 studies were identified as suitable for the current literature review. The articles included for the review are: Tyler, T.F., Nicholas, S.J., Campbell, R.J., Donellan, S., and McHugh, M.P., 2002. The Effectiveness of a Preseason Exercise Program to Prevent Adductor Muscle Strains in professional ice hockey players, American journal of sports medicine, 30, 5, 680-683. Holmich, P., 2007. Long-standing groin pain in sportspeople falls into three primary patterns, a clinical entity approach: a prospective study of 207 patients, British journal of sports medicine, 41, 247-252. Knowles, S.B., Marshall, S.W., Guskiewicz, K.M., 2006. Issues in Estimating Risks and Rates in Sports Injury Research, Journal of athletic training, 41, 2, 207-215. Engebretsen, A.H., Myklebust, G., Holme, I., Engebretsen, L., and Bahr, R., 2008. Prevention of Injuries Among Male Soccer Players : A Prospective, Randomized Intervention Study Targeting Players With Previous Injuries or Reduced Function, American journal of sports medicine, 36, 6, 1052-1060. Emery, C.A., Meeuwisse, W.H., 2001. Risk factors for groin injuries in hockey. Medicine and Science in Sports Exercise, 33, 9, 1423-1433. Harmon,K.G., 2007. Evaluation of groin pain in athletes, Current sports medicine reports, 6, 354-361. Macintyre, J., Johson, C., Schroeder, E.L.,2006. Groin pain in athletes, Current Sports Medicine Reports, 5,293-299. Ibrahim, A., Murrell, G.A.C., Knapman, P., 2007. Adductor strain and hip range of movement in male professional soccer players, Journal of orthopaedic surgery, 15, 1, 46-9. Biedert, R.M., Warnke, K., Meyer, S., 2003. Symphysis Syndrome in Athletes Surgical Treatment for Chronic Lower Abdominal, Groin, and Adductor Pain in Athletes, Clinical journal of sport medicine, 13, 5, 278-284. Maffey, L., Emery, C., 2007. What are the Risk Factors for Groin Strain Injury in Sport? A Systematic Review of the Literature, Sport medicine, 37, 10, 881-894. Chapter 5 -Analysis Holmich et al (2009), classified risk factors of the groin injury as intrinsic or extrinsic to the athlete, and also suggested that groin injury prevention strategies may be developed and evaluated if there is a good understanding of the athlete population at risk of groin injury. Similary, Parkkari et al (2001) informed that there has not been thorough identification of the risk factors or adequate surveillance of groin injury, such that injury prevention strategies can be scientifically implemented and evaluated. Due to high incidence of groin pain in hockey, a prospective cohort study by Emery and Meeuwisse (2001) surveyed 1292 National Hockey League players and found that abduction flexibility, peak adductor torque was not predicted as injury, but low levels of offseason training, sport specific training and previous injury were predicted as risk factors for groin injury. But the above risk factors are potentially modifiable intrinsic risk factors. Emery and Meeuwisse (2001) also found that the in-season sport specific training may not act as strong risk factor for groin injury. Tyler et al (2002) suggested that, adductor muscle weakness was identified as a strong risk factor compared to flexibility in Professional Ice Hockey players. The authors of the study identified that, if the adductor to abductor muscle strength ratio is less than 80%, it is predicted as a strong risk factor for adductor muscle strain. In addition to the above statement Tyler et al (2001) also identified similar findings. The player with adductor to abductor muscle strength ratio less than 80% is 17 times more likely to have an adductor muscle strain and authors recognised adduction strength was 95% of abduction strength in non injured players, but only 78% of abduction strength was found in injured players. The authors in their (Tyler et al 2001) prospective study, apart from above findings, the preseason strength of hip adduction was 18% less in players with adductor muscle strains when compared with that of uninjured players. Engebretsen et al (2008) have performed a randomized controlled trial in soccer players, identified the players and divided into high risk and low risk group. The inclusion criteria for the study were previous injury or reduced function identified through questionnaire. However, the introduction of individual specific preventive training programs to the divided groups such as ankle, knee, hamstring and groin has been resulted poor compliance with the prescribed training programs. So, the authors believe that the study did not affect the injury risk in this intervention group. Although the intervention followed in the above study was ineffective in affecting risk of injury, but players who may be able to gain from preventive exercises could be identified and reports that risk of injury was approximately twice as high in athletes with a history of previous injury or in reduced function. Chapter 6 -Discussion In this current review, the author describes that evidence shows, to develop an effective strategy for injury prevention only possible by first determining the incidence of injuries and identifying the risk factors to the athlete. Engebretsen and Bahr (2009) reports, Injury prevention in sports is a complex process, by supporting Van mechelen sequence of prevention. Researchers first try to identify one or several risk factors that causes the injury, the mechanisms of injury and develop an effective intervention to modify it, implement the intervention with sufficient compliance, and study the outcome of the intervention to detect reductions in the injury rate which are clinically applicable to make it an effective strategy. However, sometimes eliminating the risk factor may not necessarily prevent injury if there is no cause present. Evidence shows that a few well designed prospective studies exist on reviewing the literature regarding the prevention strategies in sport. Caroline Finch (2000) argued at 5th world conference on injury prevention and controls saying that sports injuries should be given considerable recognition as a public health issue. Finch also argued for the need for origin of sports injury epidemiology as a sub discipline and has seen considerable effort targeting surveillance activities. In supporting the above, Engebretsen and Bahr (2009) reported a PubMed search on athletic injury in May 2000 and showed that out of 10,691 papers, only six randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were found on sports injury prevention. In last 7 year period the number of studies on athletic injuries has gradually increased by 43% but sports injury prevention has seen a gradual improvement on number of studies and RCTs by 200-300%. There is a gap in the literature examining groin injury specifically in female sport; gender has not been identified as a risk factor for groin strain injury. But in contradiction to the above, Leetun et al (2004) identified that female athletes have significantly reduced hip abduction and external rotation strength than their male counterparts. The authors suggest that hip and trunk weakness reduces the ability of females to stabilize the hip and trunk. Therefore females may be more vulnerable to large external forces experienced by these segments during athletics, particularly forces during the transverse and frontal planes. Holmich (2007) prospective study describes on 206 athletes about the importance of the adductor related groin pain, the most common primary cause of groin pain in foot ball, but in runners the most common was iliopsoas related one, which was found in 58% of the athletes which may be of important to consider in developing and implementation of prevention strateg ies. In the area of injury prevention in sport, there are very few studies with a strong prospective research design addressing risk factors, there need to 6.1 What are the Implications for injury prevention? Injury prevention should be the ultimate goal of the sports medicine professionals. Karlsson (2009) believes, prevention should be the starting place for sports injuries unlike treatment, but prevention is not always easy to implement in the daily routine practice. Coaches, trainers involve in the games may not be interested on taking time off from the ordinary team and individual training for prevention, because coaches sometimes may have short term goals, due to various reasons and often aim players to the next match, not to the next season. Therefore, it may be mostly up to the team doctors, physiotherapists and others working with players health over the season to give long-term prevention a thought (Karlsson, 2009). McHugh (2004) suggests, in many sports the period of preseason training may be a good opportunity for sports medicine professionals to implement injury prevention strategies. However, the sports medicine professional may have only limited ability to implement strategies without the involvement of other team successfully, to reduce injuries. The pre-season period also offers an excellent opportunity to identify potential players at risk for particular injuries through pre-season screening and testing which can provide the baseline measures for sports medicine professionals to develop individual injury prevention strategies. Chapter 7 Conclusion It has been well documented that randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs) are the best and most useful, appropriate and reliable studies aiming to evaluate the effectiveness of healthcare intervention. Studies identifying risk factors for injury are essential before assessing potential prevention strategies for injury in sport. References Anderson, K., Strickland, S.M., Warren, R. 2001. Hip and groin injuries in athletes. American Journal of Sports Medicine, 29, 521-533. Aveyard, H., 2007. Doing a Literature Review in Health and Social Care. A practical gu